Cyber Security and laws

IPv4 - TCP/IP Model

A majority of the internet uses a protocol suite called the Internet Protocol Suite also known as the TCP/IP protocol suite. This suite is a combination of protocols which encompasses a number of different protocols for different purpose and need. Because the two major protocols in this suites are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol), this is commonly termed as TCP/IP Protocol suite. This protocol suite has its own reference model which it follows over the internet. In contrast with the OSI model, this model of protocols contains less layers.

Figure: Comparative depiction of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

This model is indifferent to the actual hardware implementation, i.e. the physical layer of OSI Model. This is why this model can be implemented on almost all underlying technologies. Transport and Internet layers correspond to the same peer layers. All three top layers of OSI Model are compressed together in single Application layer of TCP/IP Model.

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)

Internet Protocol is one of the major protocols in the TCP/IP protocols suite. This protocol works at the network layer of the OSI model and at the Internet layer of the TCP/IP model. Thus this protocol has the responsibility of identifying hosts based upon their logical addresses and to route data among them over the underlying network.

IP provides a mechanism to uniquely identify hosts by an IP addressing scheme. IP uses best effort delivery, i.e. it does not guarantee that packets would be delivered to the destined host, but it will do its best to reach the destination. Internet Protocol version 4 uses 32-bit logical address.

TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It was developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s. It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely, TCP and IP. TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.

The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are:

1. Host-to- Network Layer: It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports all the standard protocols.

2. Internet Layer: It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the network. The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.

3. Transport Layer: It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data. The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

4. Application Layer: This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host programs with the transport layer services. This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.

The following diagram shows the layers and the protocols in each of the layers:

Internet Protocol being a layer-3 protocol (OSI) takes data Segments from layer-4 (Transport) and divides it into packets. IP packet encapsulates data unit received from above layer and add to its own header information.

The encapsulated data is referred to as IP Payload. IP header contains all the necessary information to deliver the packet at the other end.

IP header includes many relevant information including Version Number, which, in this context, is 4. Other details are as follows:

· Version: Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).

· IHL: Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP header.

· DSCP: Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.

· ECN: Explicit Congestion Notification; It carries information about the congestion seen in the route.

· Total Length: Length of entire IP Packet (including IP header and IP Payload).

· Identification: If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the fragments contain same identification number. to identify original IP packet they belong to.

· Flags: As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to handle, these ‘flags’ tells if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag, the MSB is always set to ‘0’.

· Fragment Offset: This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the original IP Packet.

· Time to Live: To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent with some TTL value set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) this packet can cross. At each hop, its value is decremented by one and when the value reaches zero, the packet is discarded.

· Protocol: Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol this packet belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol number of ICMP is 1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.

· Header Checksum: This field is used to keep checksum value of entire header which is then used to check if the packet is received error-free.

· Source Address: 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.

· Destination Address: 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the packet.

· Options: This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is greater than 5. These options may contain values for options such as Security, Record Route, Time Stamp, etc.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is a connection oriented protocol and offers end-to-end packet delivery. It acts as back bone for connection.It exhibits the following key features:

· Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) corresponds to the Transport Layer of OSI Model.

· TCP is a reliable and connection oriented protocol.

· TCP offers:

o Stream Data Transfer.

o Reliability.

o Efficient Flow Control

o Full-duplex operation.

o Multiplexing.

· TCP offers connection oriented end-to-end packet delivery.

· TCP ensures reliability by sequencing bytes with a forwarding acknowledgement number that indicates to the destination the next byte the source expect to receive.

· It retransmits the bytes not acknowledged with in specified time period.

TCP Services

TCP offers following services to the processes at the application layer:

· Stream Delivery Service

· Sending and Receiving Buffers

· Bytes and Segments

· Full Duplex Service

· Connection Oriented Service

· Reliable Service

STREAM DELIVER SERVICE

TCP protocol is stream oriented because it allows the sending process to send data as stream of bytes and the receiving process to obtain data as stream of bytes.

SENDING AND RECEIVING BUFFERS

It may not be possible for sending and receiving process to produce and obtain data at same speed, therefore, TCP needs buffers for storage at sending and receiving ends.

BYTES AND SEGMENTS

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), at transport layer groups the bytes into a packet. This packet is called segment. Before transmission of these packets, these segments are encapsulated into an IP datagram.

FULL DUPLEX SERVICE

Transmitting the data in duplex mode means flow of data in both the directions at the same time.

CONNECTION ORIENTED SERVICE

TCP offers connection oriented service in the following manner:

1. TCP of process-1 informs TCP of process – 2 and gets its approval.

2. TCP of process – 1 and TCP of process – 2 and exchange data in both the two directions.

3. After completing the data exchange, when buffers on both sides are empty, the two TCP’s destroy their buffers.

RELIABLE SERVICE

For sake of reliability, TCP uses acknowledgement mechanism.

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It ensures no guarantee of successfully transmission of data.

In order to make it reliable, it must be paired with reliable protocol such as TCP at the transport layer.

Internet protocol transmits the data in form of a datagram as shown in the following diagram:

Points to remember:

· The length of datagram is variable.

· The Datagram is divided into two parts: header and data.

· The length of header is 20 to 60 bytes.

· The header contains information for routing and delivery of the packet.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Like IP, UDP is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It doesn’t require making a connection with the host to exchange data. Since UDP is unreliable protocol, there is no mechanism for ensuring that data sent is received.

UDP transmits the data in form of a datagram. The UDP datagram consists of five parts as shown in the following diagram:

Points to remember:

· UDP is used by the application that typically transmit small amount of data at one time.

· UDP provides protocol port used i.e. UDP message contains both source and destination port number, that makes it possible for UDP software at the destination to deliver the message to correct application program.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is used to copy files from one host to another. FTP offers the mechanism for the same in following manner:

· FTP creates two processes such as Control Process and Data Transfer Process at both ends i.e. at client as well as at server.

· FTP establishes two different connections: one is for data transfer and other is for control information.

· Control connection is made between control processes while Data Connection is made between<="" b="" style="box-sizing: border-box;">

· FTP uses port 21 for the control connection and Port 20 for the data connection.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

Trivial File Transfer Protocol is also used to transfer the files but it transfers the files without authentication. Unlike FTP, TFTP does not separate control and data information. Since there is no authentication exists, TFTP lacks in security features therefore it is not recommended to use TFTP.

Key points

· TFTP makes use of UDP for data transport. Each TFTP message is carried in separate UDP datagram.

· The first two bytes of a TFTP message specify the type of message.

· The TFTP session is initiated when a TFTP client sends a request to upload or download a file.

· The request is sent from an ephemeral UDP port to the UDP port 69 of an TFTP server.

Difference between FTP and TFTP

S.N.	Parameter	FTP	TFTP
1	Operation	Transferring Files	Transferring Files
2	Authentication	Yes	No
3	Protocol	TCP	UDP
4	Ports	21 – Control, 20 – Data	Port 3214, 69, 4012
5	Control and Data	Separated	Separated
6	Data Transfer	Reliable	Unreliable

Telnet

Telnet is a protocol used to log in to remote computer on the internet. There are a number of Telnet clients having user friendly user interface. The following diagram shows a person is logged in to computer A, and from there, he remote logged into computer B.

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is a communication protocol. It defines mechanism for communication between browser and the web server. It is also called request and response protocol because the communication between browser and server takes place in request and response pairs.

HTTP Request

HTTP request comprises of lines which contains:

· Request line

· Header Fields

· Message body

Key Points

· The first line i.e. the Request line specifies the request method i.e. Get or Post.

· The second line specifies the header which indicates the domain name of the server from where index.htm is retrieved.

HTTP Response

Like HTTP request, HTTP response also has certain structure. HTTP response contains:

· Status line

· Headers

· Message body

Cyber Crime & Cyber Security

The crime that involves and uses computer devices and Internet, is known as cybercrime.

Cybercrime can be committed against an individual or a group; it can also be committed against government and private organizations. It may be intended to harm someone’s reputation, physical harm, or even mental harm.

Cybercrime can cause direct harm or indirect harm to whoever the victim is.

However, the largest threat of cybercrime is on the financial security of an individual as well as the government.

Cybercrime causes loss of billions of USD every year.

Types of Cybercrime

Let us now discuss the major types of cybercrime −

Hacking

It is an illegal practice by which a hacker breaches the computer’s security system of someone for personal interest.

Unwarranted mass-surveillance

Mass surveillance means surveillance of a substantial fraction of a group of people by the authority especially for the security purpose, but if someone does it for personal interest, it is considered as cybercrime.

Child pornography

It is one of the most heinous crimes that is brazenly practiced across the world. Children are sexually abused and videos are being made and uploaded on the Internet.

Child grooming

It is the practice of establishing an emotional connection with a child especially for the purpose of child-trafficking and child prostitution.

Copyright infringement

If someone infringes someone’s protected copyright without permission and publishes that with his own name, is known as copyright infringement.

Money laundering

Illegal possession of money by an individual or an organization is known as money laundering. It typically involves transfers of money through foreign banks and/or legitimate business. In other words, it is the practice of transforming illegitimately earned money into the legitimate financial system.

Cyber-extortion

When a hacker hacks someone’s email server, or computer system and demands money to reinstate the system, it is known as cyber-extortion.

Cyber-terrorism

Normally, when someone hacks government’s security system or intimidates government or such a big organization to advance his political or social objectives by invading the security system through computer networks, it is known as cyber-terrorism.

Cyber Security

Cyber security is a potential activity by which information and other communication systems are protected from and/or defended against the unauthorized use or modification or exploitation or even theft.

Likewise, cyber security is a well-designed technique to protect computers, networks, different programs, personal data, etc., from unauthorized access.

All sorts of data whether it is government, corporate, or personal need high security; however, some of the data, which belongs to the government defense system, banks, defense research and development organization, etc. are highly confidential and even small amount of negligence to these data may cause great damage to the whole nation. Therefore, such data need security at a very high level.

How to Secure Data?

Let us now discuss how to secure data. In order to make your security system strong, you need to pay attention to the following −

Security Architecture
Network Diagram
Security Assessment Procedure
Security Policies
Risk Management Policy
Backup and Restore Procedures
Disaster Recovery Plan
Risk Assessment Procedures

Once you have a complete blueprint of the points mentioned above, you can put better security system to your data and can also retrieve your data if something goes wrong.

cyber crime

Cybercrime is the crime that is done using the internet and a computer or a phone or any other device as an instrument to cheat people, commit frauds, stealing intellectual property, violating privacy, stealing identities and diverting monetary transactions through the internet, female and child trafficking in pornography etc. Cybercrime has been very prevalent in the world today that almost everyone in the world is directly or indirectly affected by this. As the computer has become the gateway to the trade, banking, governance etc. Cybercrime is increasing by leaps and bounds.

Cybercrime

Cybercrime refers to all the activities done with criminal intent in cyberspace. Because of the anonymous nature of the internet, miscreants engage in a variety of criminal activities. The field of cybercrime is just emerging and new forms of criminal activities in cyberspace are coming to the forefront with each passing day.

Cyber Law - Introduction

Media forensics

Media forensics is scientific study into the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of audio, video, and image evidence obtained during the course of investigations and litigious proceedings.

Network forensics

Network forensics is a sub-branch of digital forensics relating to the monitoring and analysis of computer network traffic for the purposes of information gathering, legal evidence, or intrusion detection. ... Network traffic is transmitted and then lost, so network forensics is often a pro-active investigation.

Network forensics is the capture, recording, and analysis of network events in order to discover the source of security attacks or other problem incidents. (The term, attributed to firewall expert Marcus Ranum, is borrowed from the legal and criminology fields where forensics pertains to the investigation of crimes.) According to Simson Garfinkel, author of several books on security, network forensics systems can be one of two kinds:

Virtual machine

Virtual machine is an emulation of physical computer system. It works as a normal computer and provides complete functionality of an Operating System to the user. ... This manuscript focusses on analysis of virtual machine in forensicsand anti-forensics paradigm.

E-MAIL FORENSIC

E-MAIL FORENSIC INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES. E-mail forensics refers to the study of source and content of e-mail as evidence to identify the. actual sender and recipient of a message, data/time of transmission, detailed record of e-mail.

e-mail tracing and investigations

Investigating email crimes is the process of tracing, collecting, analyzing, andinvestigating digital evidence and cyber trails. Digital evidence and cyber trails can relate to email spamming, mail bombing/mail storms, email spoofing, identity fraud/chain letters, phishing attacks, and email hijacking

Emails are increasingly being used for business communications, Online transactions and Social communications. Offences whether financial, banking or social committed with the help of an email can be investigated and traced. There are many type of email offences exists, and email is an inexpensive and popular method for attacking potential victims.

The victim's email should be examined carefully. Sometimes, criminals may use proxy serves to send emails in order to mislead the investigation. The cooperation of the email service provider is required to obtain the postal address of the corresponding IP addresses used to carry out the offence. Sometimes the investigation may lead to a cyber café or open wifi or other public computer. In this situation conventional investigation can be used.

UNIT-II:

Cyber Law & IT Act Overview

Cyberspace

Cyberspace can be defined as an intricate environment that involves interactions between people, software, and services. It is maintained by the worldwide distribution of information and communication technology devices and networks.

With the benefits carried by the technological advancements, the cyberspace today has become a common pool used by citizens, businesses, critical information infrastructure, military and governments in a fashion that makes it hard to induce clear boundaries among these different groups. The cyberspace is anticipated to become even more complex in the upcoming years, with the increase in networks and devices connected to it.

Cyber security

Cybersecurity denotes the technologies and procedures intended to safeguard computers, networks, and data from unlawful admittance, weaknesses, and attacks transported through the Internet by cyber delinquents.

ISO 27001 (ISO27001) is the international Cybersecurity Standard that delivers a model for creating, applying, functioning, monitoring, reviewing, preserving, and improving an Information Security Management System.

The Ministry of Communication and Information Technology under the government of India provides a strategy outline called the National Cybersecurity Policy. The purpose of this government body is to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyber-attacks.

Cybersecurity Policy

The cybersecurity policy is a developing mission that caters to the entire field of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) users and providers. It includes −

Home users
Small, medium, and large Enterprises
Government and non-government entities

It serves as an authority framework that defines and guides the activities associated with the security of cyberspace. It allows all sectors and organizations in designing suitable cybersecurity policies to meet their requirements. The policy provides an outline to effectively protect information, information systems and networks.

It gives an understanding into the Government’s approach and strategy for security of cyber space in the country. It also sketches some pointers to allow collaborative working across the public and private sectors to safeguard information and information systems. Therefore, the aim of this policy is to create a cybersecurity framework, which leads to detailed actions and programs to increase the security carriage of cyberspace.

Cyber Crime

The Information Technology Act 2000 or any legislation in the Country does not describe or mention the term Cyber Crime. It can be globally considered as the gloomier face of technology. The only difference between a traditional crime and a cyber-crime is that the cyber-crime involves in a crime related to computers. Let us see the following example to understand it better −

Traditional Theft − A thief breaks into Ram’s house and stealsan object kept in the house.

Hacking − A Cyber Criminal/Hacker sitting in his own house, through his computer, hacks the computer of Ram and steals the data saved in Ram’s computer without physically touching the computer or entering in Ram’s house.

The I.T. Act, 2000 defines the terms −

· access in computer network in section 2(a)

· computer in section 2(i)

· computer network in section (2j)

· data in section 2(0)

· information in section 2(v).

To understand the concept of Cyber Crime, you should know these laws. The object of offence or target in a cyber-crime are either the computer or the data stored in the computer.

Nature of Threat

Among the most serious challenges of the 21st century are the prevailing and possible threats in the sphere of cybersecurity. Threats originate from all kinds of sources, and mark themselves in disruptive activities that target individuals, businesses, national infrastructures, and governments alike. The effects of these threats transmit significant risk for the following −

public safety
security of nations
stability of the globally linked international community

Malicious use of information technology can easily be concealed. It is difficult to determine the origin or the identity of the criminal. Even the motivation for the disruption is not an easy task to find out. Criminals of these activities can only be worked out from the target, the effect, or other circumstantial evidence. Threat actors can operate with considerable freedom from virtually anywhere. The motives for disruption can be anything such as −

simply demonstrating technical prowess
theft of money or information
extension of state conflict, etc.

Criminals, terrorists, and sometimes the State themselves act as the source of these threats. Criminals and hackers use different kinds of malicious tools and approaches. With the criminal activities taking new shapes every day, the possibility for harmful actions propagates.

Enabling People

The lack of information security awareness among users, who could be a simple school going kid, a system administrator, a developer, or even a CEO of a company, leads to a variety of cyber vulnerabilities. The awareness policy classifies the following actions and initiatives for the purpose of user awareness, education, and training −

· A complete awareness program to be promoted on a national level.

· A comprehensive training program that can cater to the needs of the national information security (Programs on IT security in schools, colleges, and universities).

· Enhance the effectiveness of the prevailing information security training programs. Plan domain-specific training programs (e.g., Law Enforcement, Judiciary, E-Governance, etc.)

· Endorse private-sector support for professional information security certifications.

Information Technology Act

The Government of India enacted The Information Technology Act with some major objectives which are as follows −

· To deliver lawful recognition for transactions through electronic data interchange (EDI) and other means of electronic communication, commonly referred to as electronic commerce or E-Commerce. The aim was to use replacements of paper-based methods of communication and storage of information.

· To facilitate electronic filing of documents with the Government agencies and further to amend the Indian Penal Code, the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, the Bankers' Books Evidence Act, 1891 and the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

The Information Technology Act, 2000, was thus passed as the Act No.21 of 2000. The I. T. Act got the President’s assent on June 9, 2000 and it was made effective from October 17, 2000. By adopting this Cyber Legislation, India became the 12th nation in the world to adopt a Cyber Law regime.

Mission and Vision Cybersecurity Program

Mission

The following mission caters to cybersecurity −

· To safeguard information and information infrastructure in cyberspace.

· To build capabilities to prevent and respond to cyber threats.

· To reduce vulnerabilities and minimize damage from cyber incidents through a combination of institutional structures, people, processes, technology, and cooperation.

Vision

To build a secure and resilient cyberspace for citizens, businesses, and Government.

Content Copyright

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We use various third party logos or trademarks in our products like Tutorials Library, Absolute Classes and Coding Ground. These logos and trademarks have been taken from various technology inventors GNU, Oracle, Microsoft, SAP, IBM, Google etc. We strongly state that such logos and trademarks have no relation with Tutorials Point and they are property of their respective owners and they hold their copyrights.

Claims of Infringement

If you find your work has been duplicated in any tutorials, shared tutorials, white papers or any other part of the website and you believe it constitutes copyright infringement, or your intellectual property rights are violated, please bring it to our notice us to claim for copyright or other intellectual property infringement. Kindly fill a notifying form at Contact Us Form. You can claim for the infringement by producing valid and correct proofs of your work.

Intellectual Property Right

Intellectual property rights are the legal rights that cover the privileges given to individuals who are the owners and inventors of a work, and have created something with their intellectual creativity. Individuals related to areas such as literature, music, invention, etc., can be granted such rights, which can then be used in the business practices by them.

The creator/inventor gets exclusive rights against any misuse or use of work without his/her prior information. However, the rights are granted for a limited period of time to maintain equilibrium.

The following list of activities which are covered by the intellectual property rights are laid down by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) −

Industrial designs
Scientific discoveries
Protection against unfair competition
Literary, artistic, and scientific works
Inventions in all fields of human endeavor
Performances of performing artists, phonograms, and broadcasts
Trademarks, service marks, commercial names, and designations
All other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary, or artistic fields

Types of Intellectual Property Rights

Intellectual Property Rights can be further classified into the following categories −

Copyright
Patent
Patent
Trade Secrets, etc.

Advantages of Intellectual Property Rights

Intellectual property rights are advantageous in the following ways −

· Provides exclusive rights to the creators or inventors.

· Encourages individuals to distribute and share information and data instead of keeping it confidential.

· Provides legal defense and offers the creators the incentive of their work.

· Helps in social and financial development.

Intellectual Property Rights in India

To protect the intellectual property rights in the Indian territory, India has defined the formation of constitutional, administrative and jurisdictive outline whether they imply the copyright, patent, trademark, industrial designs, or any other parts of the intellectual property rights.

Back in the year 1999, the government passed an important legislation based on international practices to safeguard the intellectual property rights. Let us have a glimpse of the same −

· The Patents (Amendment) Act, 1999, facilitates the establishment of the mail box system for filing patents. It offers exclusive marketing rights for a time period of five years.

· The Trade Marks Bill, 1999, replaced the Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958

· The sui generis legislation was approved and named as the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Bill, 1999.

· The Industrial Designs Bill, 1999, replaced the Designs Act, 1911.

· The Patents (Second Amendment) Bill, 1999, for further amending the Patents Act of 1970 in compliance with the TRIPS.

Intellectual Property in Cyber Space

Every new invention in the field of technology experiences a variety of threats. Internet is one such threat, which has captured the physical marketplace and have converted it into a virtual marketplace.

To safeguard the business interest, it is vital to create an effective property management and protection mechanism keeping in mind the considerable amount of business and commerce taking place in the Cyber Space.

Today it is critical for every business to develop an effective and collaborative IP management mechanism and protection strategy. The ever-looming threats in the cybernetic world can thus be monitored and confined.

Various approaches and legislations have been designed by the law-makers to up the ante in delivering a secure configuration against such cyber-threats. However it is the duty of the intellectual property right (IPR) owner to invalidate and reduce such mala fide acts of criminals by taking proactive measures.

Offences & Penalties

The faster world-wide connectivity has developed numerous online crimes and these increased offences led to the need of laws for protection. In order to keep in stride with the changing generation, the Indian Parliament passed the Information Technology Act 2000 that has been conceptualized on the United Nations Commissions on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law.

The law defines the offenses in a detailed manner along with the penalties for each category of offence.

Offences

Cyber offences are the illegitimate actions, which are carried out in a classy manner where either the computer is the tool or target or both.

Cyber-crime usually includes the following −

Unauthorized access of the computers
Data diddling
Virus/worms attack
Theft of computer system
Hacking
Denial of attacks
Logic bombs
Trojan attacks

First Amendments

As discussed in the first chapter, the Government of India enacted the Information Technology ... The first schedule contains the amendments in the Penal Code.

About Copyright

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Pages, code or other content from tutorialspoint may not be redistributed or reproduced in any way, shape, or form without the written permission of tutorialspoint.

Failure to do so is a violation of copyright laws.

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What is Risk Management?

Risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and prioritizing the risks to minimize, monitor, and control the probability of unfortunate events.

Risk Management Process:

Risk Management process can be easily understood with use of the following workflow:

Risk Management Practices:

· Software Risk Evaluation (SRE)

· Continuous Risk Management (CRM)

· Team Risk Management (TRM)

Trademarks

A trademark, trade mark, or trade-mark is a recognizable sign, design, or expression which identifies products or services of a particular source from those of others, although trademarks used to identify services are usually called service mark

Defamation

Defamation, calumny, vilification, or traducement is the communication of a false statement that harms the reputation of, depending on the law of the country, ..

Defamation is the making of a false statement concerning a person or business that damages that person's or business's reputation. ... If a defamatory statement is made verbally, it's called slander. If a defamatory statement is published in writing, it's called libel.

federal statute

A federal statute is a law enacted by Congress. It is the written will of Congress as expressed formally by an Act of Congress. Thus, when a bill is passed by Congress and signed by the president, it becomes a federal statute.

UNIT-IV:

Procedural Issues

Duty of Care

A director must show care and dedication towards the work he has been assigned although he should not be too much obsessive towards his work. Any provision in agreement with the articles that excludes the liability of the directors for default, negligence, breach of duty, breach of trust, or misfeasance is considered to be void. The directors cannot be even indemnified by the company against such liabilities.

Thursday, 23 May 2019

M.tech 2 sem MTCS035 cyber security and laws